to cause a specific result or state. Often used before a result-describing word, meaning to make something clear, messy, or ruined.

Used between a verb and its result to show that the action cannot achieve that result; used as the negative form of the 得 de potential construction

to understand; to comprehend; to know; often used as a result after verbs like 听 tīng or 看 kàn to show that information was successfully processed